How Much Does Nurture Affect How Social Your Baby Is?

J Fam Psychol. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2020 Dec one.

Published in final edited class as:

PMCID: PMC6878128

NIHMSID: NIHMS1037955

The nature and nurture of social development: The role of 5-HTTLPR and factor-parenting interactions

Barbara Caplan, C.Phil.,^one Julia Morgan, Ph.D.,ⁱ Amanda N. Noroña, Ph.D.,ⁱⁱ Irene Tung, Ph.D.,ⁱⁱⁱ Steve S. Lee, PhD.,ⁱ and Bruce Fifty. Bakery, Ph.D.¹

Barbara Caplan

^oneDepartment of Psychology, Academy of California, Los Angeles

Julia Morgan

^oneDepartment of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles

Amanda N. Noroña

²Department of Psychiatry, University of Colorado Denver

Irene Tung

³Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh

Steve S. Lee

¹Department of Psychology, Academy of California, Los Angeles

Bruce L. Baker

¹Department of Psychology, Academy of California, Los Angeles

Abstract

Social skills are traditionally viewed as acquired through social environments including parenting. However, biopsychosocial models highlight the importance of genetic influences and gene-environment interactions (GxEs) in child development. Extant GxE investigations often fail to business relationship for developmental changes in the phenotype or rigorously assess the social surroundings using observational measures. The nowadays study prospectively assessed 110 children (44.5% female) and their parents to explore biologically plausible independent and interactive associations of the serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) and observed positive and negative parenting in prediction of: (a) initial levels of social skills at school entry (age 6 years), and (b) developmental changes in social skills across the early on school years (ages 6–9 years). Overall, the SS (vs. SL/LL) 5-HTTLPR genotype inversely predicted social skills across all domains, although parenting behavior moderated these associations wherein putative GxE effects differed past developmental timing and social skills domain. Positive parenting positively predicted concurrent (age half dozen) overall social skills for children with SL/LL genotypes, simply non the SS genotype. However, for the SS group only, historic period 6 positive parenting positively predicted prospective growth in social responsibility, while negative parenting positively predicted growth in social cooperation. Findings suggest that 5-HTTLPR may bespeak differential sensitivities to parenting styles and patterns of social development, which may help to inform targeted intervention approaches to enhance person-environment fit.

Keywords: Social development, parenting, cistron-environment interaction

The development of social competence is a major developmental milestone during babyhood that plays a central role in bookish, vocational, and emotional adjustment (Denham, 2006). Social skills, or the specific behaviors that an individual employs to accomplish social tasks, are keys predictor of social competence (Merrell & Gimpel, 2014). Babyhood social skills include social communication (e.1000., appropriate conversation skills, eye contact), assertiveness with peers and adults, responsibility for oneself and others, and self-regulation in interpersonal situations (Gresham, Elliott, Vance, & Melt, 2011). Children demonstrate tremendous growth in their social skills beyond development as emerging skills in cognition, perspective taking, and regulation come online (Racz, Putnick, Suwalsky, Hendricks, & Bornstein, 2017). However, some children deviate from this typical developmental trajectory and are at gamble for poor outcomes in boyhood and adulthood including internalizing (i.e., low, anxiety) and externalizing disorders (i.e., ADHD, conduct bug; e.g., Bornstein, Hahn, & Haynes, 2010). This substantial link between social operation and developmental psychopathology warrants a ameliorate agreement of the social and biological contributors to kid social skills development.

Although private differences in social skills were traditionally viewed every bit acquired primarily though social interactions (Michelson, Sugai, Wood, & Kazdin, 1983), important aspects of social behavior are moderately heritable (e.g., prosocial behavior, antisocial behavior; Knafo, State of israel, & Ebstein, 2011), suggesting that genetic and social surround jointly contribute to social development. In particular, the serotonin organisation contributes to social functioning via its regulatory role in the development and function of neural networks involved basic cognitive processes (e.chiliad., attention, arousal) as well as downstream self-regulation and social noesis (Brummelte, Mc Glanaghy, Bonnin, & Oberlander, 2016). Moreover, medications targeting the serotonin system (e.g., selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) take been shown to modify social beliefs (Adolphs, 2001), farther suggesting a causal link betwixt serotonin neurotransmission and social functioning.

One key regulator of serotonin availability, the serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR), has been linked to a range of phenotypes relevant to adaptive social functioning including neuroticism, assailment, anxiety, and mood (Mueller & Canli, 2013). The short (S) and long (Fifty) alleles of 5-HTTLPR differentially attune the expression and function of the serotonin transporter (Homberg & Lesch, 2011). Meta-analytic evidence supports that the presence of two short alleles (i.e., the SS genotype) is linked to increased emotional reactivity, attentional bias, and empathic responding (Pergamin-Hight, Bakermans-Kranenburg, van IJzendoorn, & Bar-Haim, 2012; Gyurak et al., 2013), processes essential to adaptive social functioning. 5-HTTLPR variation directly predicted social traits and prosocial behaviors in humans and is proposed to operate on social cognition via altered neurobiological structure and function in brain regions associated with social operation (Canli & Lesch, 2007; Stoltenberg, Christ, & Carlo, 2013). Studies of non-human animals further suggest a biologically plausible relation between 5-HTTLPR and social behavior. For example, serotonin knockout rodents show deficits in social interaction and play behavior (Kalueff, Olivier, Nonkes, & Homberg, 2010), and the orthologous rhesus macaque rh5-HTTLPR predicts social behaviors (east.g., submissive behaviors gestures and vocalizations; Bailey, Patterson, & Fairbanks, 2015). Yet, piddling is known about the role of 5-HTTLPR on social evolution in childhood, a time when social environments are likely to jointly play an influential role.

Parenting behavior is arguably the about prominent social environmental influence on kid development. In fact, caregiving is necessary for normal offspring encephalon evolution across species (Tottenham, 2015). Developmental theories, including attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969) and social information processing theory (Crick & Contrivance, 1994), highlight parent-child interactions as central to the germination of cognitive schemas that provide children with a framework for hereafter social learning and relationship germination. Indeed, loftier quality parenting predicts children's social, behavioral, and academic adjustment, particularly during the early- to mid-elementary school years (Eisenberg et al., 2001; NICHD, 2002). Caregiving that is sensitive and responsive is consistently related to cognitive-affective processes (Tottenham, 2015) and downstream social behavior, including more secure attachment, social competence and bear on regulation (Cassidy & Shaver, 2016; NICHD, 2002). Parents may further back up optimal child social adjustment through cerebral stimulation activities (Gauvin & Perez, 2015), and affect expression and emotion socialization (e.k. Eisenberg et al., 2001). In contrast, intrusive parenting is associated with poor emotional and behavioral adjustment (Barber, 2002). Importantly, child and parenting behavior occur in a dynamic transaction across development (Sameroff, 2009); children that lack social engagement to elicit parent interaction may be at risk for less exposure to positive parenting, which in turn may maintain poor social functioning. Thus, it is essential to take into account relevant child characteristics to fairly estimate parents' influence on social development over time.

Genetic and parenting factors independently influence offspring social development, simply biopsychosocial models define the boundaries of these effects too every bit resolve important inconsistencies (Calkins, Propper, & Mills-Koonce, 2013). Two primary models have been used to characterize the way in which genes and environments interact (i.e. gene-environment interactions; GxEs) to predict clinical and developmental phenotypes. The diathesis-stress (or dual take a chance) model proposes that certain genetic variants non only serve as run a risk factors for poor evolution, only also heighten vulnerability to ecology stress (e.yard., Monroe & Simons, 1991). However, many studies assuming a diathesis-stress procedure exclusively consider negative environments. Withal, evolutionary theory suggests that some biomarkers may differentially confer susceptibility to environments "for better and for worse" (Ellis, Boyce, Belsky, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & van Ijzendoorn, 2011). The low expressing SS genotype of 5-HTTLPR may be a marker of differential susceptibility (Ellis et al., 2011), simultaneously increasing sensitivity to positive and negative environmental influences (east.chiliad., Taylor et al., 2006) due to increased extracellular and synaptic serotonin (Homberg & Lesch, 2011). Increased serotonin secondary to the SS genotype has been linked to hypervigilance to ecology stimuli, which may pb to adaptation or increased risk depending on the environmental context (Brummelte et al., 2016; Pergamin-Hight, Bakermans-Kranenburg, van IJzendoorn, & Bar- Haim, 2012). Individual differences in susceptibility to environmental influence may explicate why previously considered risk variants (e.thousand., SS genotype) take been conserved beyond evolution, as these same factors also improve fettle in certain contexts (Ellis et al., 2011).

Although multiple functional polymorphisms (e.1000., DRD4, OXTR) chastened predictions of social behavior (e.m., aggression) from parenting, five-HTTLPR is a specially compelling given its role in social knowledge (Homberg & Lesch, 2011; Tielbeek et al., 2016). To date, GxE models in social functioning accept primarily emphasized the interactive part of 5-HTTLPR and adverse childhood environments (e.g., maltreatment) on poor social outcomes, with findings suggestive of diathesis stress (Tielbeek et al., 2016). While this model is commensurate with previous 5-HTTLPR studies across other domains of functioning (eastward.g., stressful life events, depression; Karg, Burmeister, Shedden, & Sen, 2011), as well as studies of rh5-HTTLPR in non-human primates (Canli & Lesch, 2007), the primary focus of GxE studies on abnormal social functioning raises questions as to whether GxEs influence social beliefs on a continuum, including positive social behavior. Thus, current prove supports the function of 5-HTTLPR ten caregiving interactions in man and non-human animals, all the same simultaneous examination of negative and positive environments on social functioning is needed to test competing models of GxE (i.e., diathesis stress, differential susceptibility; Belsky, 2016) and to fairly characterize the role of GxE in social development.

Existing GxE studies have largely relied on cross-sectional designs, limiting directional inferences and assessments of alter over fourth dimension. Longitudinal tests of GxE beyond development are strongly indicated given critical social and developmental milestones in childhood (due east.g., teacher relationships, new peer groups; Ladd, 1990) and given the improved statistical power secondary to repeated measures designs. The nowadays study builds on the extant literature by employing rigorous observational measurement of positive and negative parenting quality equally well every bit longitudinal assessment of adaptive social performance. Information technology as well examines subdomains of social skills (cooperation, assertion, responsibility, self-command) to assess the specificity of GxE furnishings on social development. Equally these social skills subdomains are differentially related to aspects of positive child adjustment (e.chiliad., Lane, Wehby, & Cooley, 2006) and the caregiving environment (Hindman & Morrison, 2012), they may be differentially sensitive to 5-HTTLPR × parenting interactions. Thus, nosotros tested contained and interactive effects of positive and negative parenting quality and child 5-HTTLPR genotype in prediction of: (ane) concurrent social skills at school entry (kid age vi), and (2) prospective changes in child social skills from age 6 to 9). Nosotros hypothesized that a model of differential susceptibility would exist supported, such that positive and negative parenting would predict initial levels and growth in social skills, but but for SS children.

Method

Participants

Participants were 110 children and their families fatigued from the Collaborative Family Report, a longitudinal study of family unit processes and child development based at three universities: University of California Los Angeles, University of California Riverside and Pennsylvania Country University. Children with typical development or developmental delays were recruited from local schools and developmental service centers at historic period three or 5 years in Southern California (84%) and Central Pennsylvania (16%). Thus, the cognitive abilities of the present sample represent a wide range of operation (IQ range: 45–137), with 78.two% of children falling within the normative IQ range (i.due east., IQs > 70). Children with severe motor impairments (i.due east., not ambulatory) or a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder were excluded from study participation. Participating families represented varied socioeconomic backgrounds (29.eight% with highest educational degree of high school diploma; 33.9% with household income beneath $50,000). Near child participants were Caucasian (58.8%), with other race-ethnicities including Hispanic (17.5 %), African American (vii.nine%), Asian (i.8%), and Other (14.0%).

Procedures

All research procedures were approved by the Institutional Review Boards at the three participating universities. Most families were initially recruited at child age three; the current report includes data from almanac assessments from kid age 5 to 9 years to assess social development across the early school years. Informed consent was obtained prior to each assessment. All procedures (detailed below) comply with APA Upstanding Standards. Children completed a laboratory-based cognitive assessment at age 5 years. At age 6, children were observed with their mothers during a naturalistic interaction in the home. Mothers also completed standardized ratings of kid social skills at kid historic period vi, vii, 8 and 9 years. Families returned to the middle at child age xiii years and children were asked to provide a Dna saliva sample. The present study included participants who provided a viable saliva sample at historic period 13, participated in a parent- child interaction at historic period half dozen years, and had an assessment of social skills by mother written report at a minimum of one assessment year (ages six, 7, 8 or nine years). Children that completed the DNA collection (n =110) did non differ from those who did not (northward = 86) with respect to sex, race/ethnicity, positive and negative parenting (all p > .10). Those who completed the DNA collection had higher IQs and mean social skills scores at ages 6, 7, and eight years (all p < .05), just not at 9 years. The vast bulk of participants completed social skills ratings at all time points. The pct of missing data for mother-reported social skills is as follows: 2.7% at age half dozen, 3.6% at ages vii and ix, and 9.1% at age viii. Individuals with missing data at child ages 7, 8 or 9 [north = 16 (missing 1 (12) two (3) or iii (1) time points)] did not differ from those without missing information regarding historic period half dozen social skills, IQ, positive and negative parenting, female parent education, family income, or genotype.

Measures

Cerebral functioning.

The Stanford-Binet Four (Thorndike et al., 1986) was administered to assess each kid'due south cerebral ability at age 5 years. This widely used assessment musical instrument yields an IQ score with a normative mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. The Stanford-Binet 4 demonstrates high internal consistency (Gluttig, 1989) and expert testify of validity (Thorndike et al., 1986). The assessment is particularly well suited to assess a broad range of operation, as the administration requires that the examiner adapt starting points based on the child'southward developmental level.

Parenting.

Parenting quality was assessed during naturalistic, in-home ascertainment of families at child historic period half dozen years using the Parent-Child Interaction Rating Organisation (PCIRS; Belsky, Crnic & Gable, 1995). Families were observed in the evening time for a period of sixty minutes. Coders observed for ten minutes each, followed by a 5-infinitesimal scoring menstruum. Ratings were and then averaged beyond four 10-minute ascertainment periods. Half-dozen aspects of parent behaviors were rated on a v-point Likert scale (1 = non at all characteristic, 5 = highly or predominantly characteristic) that considered both the frequency and intensity of the expressed affect or behavior. Prior factor analyses (e.g., Fenning, Bakery, Baker, & Crnic, 2007) have establish these parenting dimensions to represent two factors: positive parenting and negative parenting. Positive parenting included positive affect expressed toward the child (Positive Bear on), sensitivity to the kid'south mood, interests and abilities (Sensitivity), the quality of attempts to scaffold learning opportunities (Cerebral Stimulation), and engagement with the child (Disengagement, contrary coded). Negative parenting included expression of negative affect towards the child (due east.one thousand., anger, frustration, disappointment (Negative Affect) and attempts to impose an calendar or control the interaction with the child (Intrusiveness). Subscales within each dimension were converted to z-scores and combined to create positive and negative parenting composites. Coders were trained using videotapes of abode observations and past attending live dwelling house observations with an experienced coder until reliability was established. Raters were considered reliable once they met at to the lowest degree lxx% exact agreement with the expert coder and 95% understanding within one scale signal. After coming together these criteria, coders checked 20% of their tapes with the primary coder to ensure ongoing reliability. The average kappa for independent raters was 0.73, reflecting adequate levels of interrater reliability.

Genotype.

Saliva samples were collected from study participants using Oragene Deoxyribonucleic acid Collection Kits (Ottawa, ON, Canada). Buccal cells were genotyped for five-HTTLPR using standard primers, yielding products of 484 or 528 bp. The upstream single nucleotide variant rs25531 (A > M) was genotyped in addition to the S (14-repeated units) and L (16-repeated units) alleles, as the rs25531 Lg allele has been associated with decreased serotonin transporter transcription, similar to the South allele (Hu et al., 2006). To simplify the presentation of findings, diallelic labeling volition exist utilized (SS, SL, LL) in which L_Chiliad alleles are represented past South annotation. SL was the most mutual genotype in the present sample (59.one%), followed by SS (22.7%) and LL (18.2%). Allele frequencies did non deviate from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium [χ ² (1)= 2.92, p= .09]. No group differences by genotype (SS v. SL/LL) were establish for child sex, IQ, race/ethnicity, family income, or mother'due south level of educational activity (all p > .10).

Social Functioning.

Child social skills were assessed at child ages six, 7, viii and 9 years via mother report on the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS-P; Gresham & Elliott, 1990). The parent form of the SSRS measures social skills in the post-obit domains: Cooperation (due east.g., helps with household chores, gives compliments), Assertion (e.g., joins group activities, starts conversations), Responsibility (e.yard., asks for permission, reports accidents appropriately) and Self-Control (e.chiliad., controls atmosphere, receives criticism well). Parents study the frequency of behaviors on a 3-signal Likert scale from 0 (Never) to 2 (Very Often). Each scale contains 10 items; two items contribute to two scales, yielding 39 total items. The SSRS Social Skills scale (SSRS-Total) yields standard score with a hateful of 100 and standard deviation of 15. The SSRS-P demonstrated high internal consistency for the social skills Total score (α = .87), moderate to high internal consistency across subscales (α = .65 to .80), strong 4-calendar week test-retest reliability (r = .80), and convergent validity with the Social Behavioral Assessment (Gresham & Elliott, 1990; Gresham, Elliott, Vance, & Cook, 2011).

Data Analytic Programme

Latent growth curve modeling (LGCM) was used to examine the independent and interactive effects of genotype and parenting quality in prediction of: (a) initial levels of child social skills at age six years and (b) growth in social skills from ages half dozen to 9 years. LGCM allows for the examination of private differences in social skills growth over time, as well every bit predictors of growth. Estimates of latent intercept and slope were derived from mother-reported social skills at kid ages 6, 7, 8 and 9 years. Predictors of latent intercept and slope were as follows: child 5-HTTLPR genotype, positive parenting, negative parenting, positive parenting ten five-HTTLPR interaction, and negative parenting ten 5-HTTLPR interaction. Parenting variables were mean centered prior to creating interaction terms. Genotypes were dummy coded using a recessive model, such that children homozygous for the Southward or L_K alleles (SS = ane) were compared to SL/LL children (SL/LL = 0). This recessive model was employed based on meta-analytic bear witness for the association of the SS genotype with sensitivity to the environment (vs. SL/LL genotypes; Pergamin-Hight et al., 2012) and evidence that SL and LL genotypes perform more similarly than the SS genotype with respect to GxE (e.g. 5-HTTLPR interactions with envrionmental adversity; Uher & McGuffin, 2008). Observed interactions for latent growth were probed per Preacher, Curran, and Bauer (2006), whereby unproblematic slopes were computed at 1 standard deviation (SD) above and below the means of the parenting variables. When no significant GxEs were present (p > .10), interaction terms were dropped and main effects of parenting quality and child genotype were evaluated. Total information maximum likelihood (FIML) estimation was used to account for missing data. Kid IQ and maternal education level were included as covariates in all models to command for their potential influence on parenting behavior and child social skills development. Further, although unlikely in this sample, population stratification, or the unequal distribution of alleles beyond different races, may threaten internal validity. Although chi-squared tests revealed no racial grouping differences in the distribution of five-HTTLPR alleles (χ² (4) = 2.19, p = .70), African American children demonstrated significantly lower social skills than Caucasian children at assessment age nine merely (F = 2.53, p < .05). Thus, kid race-ethnicity was covaried in all models.

Results

Descriptive statistics

Social skills did not differ past genotype at ages six, 7 and 8 years. At age nine years, the SL/LL group demonstrated greater levels of mother-reported social skills than the SS group ix (t = 2.twoscore, p < .05). No group differences were establish for positive parenting (t = 0.10) or negative parenting (t = −0.08) past child genotype. Table 1 reports the ways, standard deviations, and correlations for other key study variables. The mean levels of observed positive parenting (rated on a five-point Likert calibration) map onto "some" to "moderate" levels, while mean negative parenting levels fell between "minimal" to "some" negative parenting, as described in the PCIRS coding manual. Positive parenting was positively correlated with child full social skills across all assessment years, while negative parenting was not associated with kid total social skills. Interestingly, observed positive and negative parenting were non significantly correlated in the present study (r = .04, p = .64). Every bit anticipated, child IQ was positively associated with social skills at all times points, while mother pedagogy was positively associated with positive parenting and social skills at child age 6 only.

Table 1

Descriptive statistics and correlations for key study variables (Northward = 110)

Variable (age)	Hateful (SD)	i	ii	3	four	v	6	7	8	9
one. Child Sex a	0.55	ane
2. IQ (5)	xc.4 (23.4)	−.02	i
3. Mother pedagogy b	fifteen.ii (2.3)	.09	.33***	1
4. Positive parenting (6) c	two.45 (0.6)	−.12	.12	.36***	one
five. Negative parenting (half dozen) c	1.66 (0.5)	.09	−.ten	.14	.06	one
half-dozen. SSRS-P (six) d	95.9 (18.4)	.16	.50***	.23*	.27**	.09	1
7. SSRS-P (vii) d	98.vii (17.2)	.01	.44***	.15	.31**	.12	.83***	1
8. SSRS-P (8) d	98.seven (17.7)	−.01	.xl***	.10	.26**	.02	.lxxx***	.85***	ane
9. SSRS-P (ix) d	99.6 (17.9)	.11	.41***	.02	.28**	.01	.73***	.77***	.83***	ane

5-HTTLPR 10 parenting interactions predicting concurrent social skills

LGCMs for all models demonstrated acceptable to good model fit for the sample size and number of variables assessed (Table 2). We offset examined whether 5-HTTLPR x parenting interactions predicted initial (age 6) child social skills (Table 2A). The v-HTTLPR 10 positive parenting interaction predicted total social skills, such that at that place was a positive association between positive parenting and concurrent (age 6) social skills among SL/LL children (B = iv.86, p < .01), just non SS children (B = −two.70, p = .43). The 5-HTTLPR ten negative parenting interaction did not predict total social skills.

Table ii

Latent growth curve models (LCGMs) predicting domains of mother-reported social skills from child ages vi to 9 years (North= 110)

	SSRS-Total			SSRS-Cooperation			SSRS-Assertion			SSRS-Responsibility			SSRS- Self-Control
	B	SE (B)	Beta	B	SE(B)	Beta	B	SE(B)	Beta	B	SE(B)	Beta	B	SE(B)	Beta
A. Intercept	95.01 ***	1.97	5.68	11.18 ***	0.41	3.66	15.22 ***	0.36	five.23	11.29 ***	0.twoscore	3.36	12.32 ***	0.38	iv.22
Child IQ	0.41 ***	0.07	0.02	0.06 ***	0.01	0.44	0.06 ***	0.12	0.44	0.09 ***	0.01	0.lx	0.07 ***	0.01	0.57
Race 1 a	−vi.09	4.01	−0.36	−0.89	0.83	−0.xiv	−1.86 *	0.74	−0.31	−0.74	0.82	−0.eleven	−0.58	0.78	−0.ten
Race 2 a	0.12	2.29	0.01	−0.19	0.47	−0.05	0.08	0.42	0.02	−0.21	0.47	−0.05	−0.14	0.44	−0.04
Race 3 a	3.24	3.07	0.xix	0.74	0.62	0.14	1.09	0.57	0.22	0.47	0.63	0.08	0.47	0.59	0.09
Female parent Education b	−0.49	0.seventy	−0.03	−0.21	0.fourteen	−0.sixteen	0.04	0.13	0.03	−0.05	0.14	−0.03	−0.21	0.14	−0.16
Positive Parenting	4.86 **	1.65	0.29	ane.20 ***	0.14	0.39	0.41	0.30	0.14	0.83 *	0.33	0.25	1.02 **	0.32	0.35
Negative Parenting	2.69	1.69	0.xvi	0.09	0.eleven	0.09	0.62 *	0.31	0.21	0.87 *	0.34	0.26	0.35	0.33	0.12
v-HTTLPR c	3.81	3.36	0.23	0.42	0.68	0.06	0.87	0.62	0.thirteen	i.01	0.68	0.13	0.69	0.65	−0.10
GxE: Positive	−7.56 *	3.72	−0.45	−1.56 *	0.76	−0.22	−0.77	0.68	−0.11	−1.73 *	0.75	−0.22	−1.30†	0.73	−0.19
GxE: Negative	−0.63	3.thirty	−0.04	0.10	0.67	0.02	−0.05	0.60	−0.01	−0.24	0.67	−0.04	−0.58	0.64	−0.x
R-square (Southward.E.)	0.38 ***	(.08)	--	0.27 **	(.08)	--	0.31 ***	(.08)	--	0.43 ***	(.08)	--	0.36 ***	(.09)	--
B. Slope	1.24 *	0.50	0.40	0.xvi	0.13	0.20	−0.02	0.ten	−0.03	0.54 **	0.11	0.91	0.21†	0.12	0.44
Child IQ	−0.03	0.02	−0.01	−0.01*	0.00	−0.25	0.00	0.00	−0.12	0.00	0.00	0.05	−0.01	0.00	−0.29
Race ane a	−1.77†	1.04	−0.56	0.08	0.26	0.05	−0.27	0.21	−0.23	−0.33	0.22	−0.27	−0.17	0.25	−0.17
Race two a	1.34	0.58	0.43	0.25†	0.15	0.23	0.24 *	0.12	0.32	0.15	0.13	0.19	0.12	0.14	0.19
Race 3 a	0.88	0.78	0.28	−0.05	0.19	−0.03	−0.ten	0.16	−0.10	0.14	0.17	0.fourteen	0.24	0.19	0.29
Mother Pedagogy b	−0.53 **	0.18	−0.17	−0.09 *	0.04	−0.26	−0.ten **	0.04	−0.38	−0.07†	0.04	−0.27	0.09†	0.04	−0.41
Positive Parenting	0.20	0.42	0.06	0.01	0.11	0.02	0.07	0.03	0.xi	−0.03	0.09	−0.05	0.01	0.ten	0.03
Negative Parenting	−0.64	0.42	−0.21	−0.09	0.04	−0.12	−0.11	0.09	−0.19	−0.19 **	0.09	−0.33	0.00	0.09	−0.01
five-HTTLPR c	−2.85 **	0.87	−0.91	−0.46 *	0.21	−0.24	−0.49 **	0.18	−0.36	−0.46 *	0.19	−0.32	−0.43 *	0.21	−0.38
GxE: Positive	ane.21	0.95	0.39	−0.27	0.24	−0.xiv	0.22	0.20	0.16	0.62 **	0.20	−0.44	0.02	0.23	−0.02
GxE: Negative	2.xviii *	0.93	0.70	0.51 *	0.23	0.32	0.35†	0.nineteen	0.30	0.09	0.20	0.08	0.33	0.23	−0.33
R-square (S.Due east.)	0.59 **	(.17)	--	0.41 **	(.xiii)	--	0.50 *	(.21)	--	0.52 *	(.23)	--	0.69	0.46	--

To further probe the observed 5-HTTLPR x positive parenting interaction predicting total social skills, we examined this aforementioned interaction only in prediction of the individual social skills subdomains (cooperation, assertion, responsibility, self-command; Tabular array 2A). We found that the observed interaction predicting total social skills was primarily driven by predictions of cooperation (B = −one.56, p = .04) and responsibility (B = −1.73, p = .02), although a positive parenting x 5-HTTLPR interaction too approached significance for self-control (B = −i.thirty, p = .07). Across these three subdomains, positive parenting was positively associated with initial social skills, but only for those with the SL/LL genotype (cooperation: B _SL/LL = 1.20, p < .01, responsibleness: B _SL/LL = 0.83, p = .01, self-control: B _SL/LL = 1.02, p < .01). No significant 5-HTTLPR 10 negative parenting interactions were constitute in prediction of initial social skills across subdomains. Yet, unexpected main effects of negative parenting were observed such that increased negative parenting was associated with college assertion and responsibility at age 6 (Table 2A).

five-HTTLPR 10 parenting interactions predicting growth in social skills

Side by side, we examined whether 5-HTTLPR x parenting interactions predicted growth in child social skills from ages 6 to 9 years (i.due east., slope; Table 2B). Nosotros observed an unexpected v-HTTLPR x negative parenting interaction predicting growth in total social skills (Tabular array 2B), whereby negative parenting was only marginally associated with more positive growth in social skills for SS children (B = ane.54, p = .07), but not SL/LL children (B = −.64, p = .xiii). Thus, although this interaction predicting growth in full social skills was significant, simple slopes by genotype revealed no significant furnishings. The 5-HTTLPR x positive parenting interaction did not predict growth in total social skills (Table 2B).

We besides examined 5-HTTLPR x negative parenting in predicting subdomains of social skills. The v-HTTLPR x negative parenting interaction predicted growth in kid cooperation (Table 2B), such that negative parenting was positively associated with growth in cooperation skills for SS children (Bss = .42, p < .05), but not associated with growth in the SL/LL group (B _SL/LL = −.09, p = .39). Unproblematic slope tests were calculated at one SD above and beneath the hateful of negative parenting for SS children. Of annotation, one SD in a higher place the mean equates roughly to "some" levels of negative parenting on the PCIRS (or a rating of 2.ii on a ane–5 Likert calibration), while i SD below the hateful equates to "minimal" levels of negative parenting (ane.1 on a one–five Likert calibration). At one SD above the hateful of negative parenting, the cooperation slope for SS children did not differ from zip (B = .eleven, p = .seventy), while at one SD beneath the mean, the SS group demonstrated a significant decline in these skills (B = −.72, p = .01; Effigy 1).

5-HTTLPR x negative parenting interaction predicting growth in SSRS-Cooperation from child ages six to nine years. SSRS: Social Skills Rating System. NEG: Negative parenting. Minimal: i SD below the mean; approximately equivalent to "minimal" negative parenting on the PCIRS (1.ane on a one–5 Likert scale); Some: 1 SD above the hateful; approximately equivalent to "some" negative parenting on the PCIRS (two.two on a ane–5 Likert scale). Asterisk (*) reflects the significant uncomplicated outcome of negative parenting in the SS grouping.

*p<.05

The v-HTTLPR x positive parenting interaction significantly predicted kid responsibility (Tabular array 2B). Positive parenting was positively associated with growth in responsibility for SS children (B = .58, p < .01), but non SL/LL children (B = −.03, p = .73). Simple slope tests were calculated at one SD above and below the mean of positive parenting for SS children (Figure ii). At one SD above the mean (i.due east., "moderate" levels of positive parenting), SS children demonstrated a significant increase is responsibleness skills (B = .66, p = .01). At ane SD below the mean (i.e., "some" levels of positive parenting), SS children demonstrated a decline in responsibility skills (B = −.50, p < .05). No 5-HTTLPR x negative parenting interaction was found for kid responsibility growth, though a master effect of negative parenting revealed that greater levels of negative parenting associated with declines in responsibility skills.

five-HTTLPR 10 positive parenting interaction predicting growth in SSRS-Responsibility from child ages half-dozen to nine years. SSRS: Social Skills Rating Organization. POS: Positive parenting. Moderate: 1 SD above the mean; approximately equivalent to "moderate" levels of positive parenting on the PCIRS (three.1 on a ane −five Likert scale). Low: 1 SD below the mean; roughly equivalent to "some" levels of positive parenting on the PCIRS (two.two on a 1–5 Likert scale). Asterisk (*) reflects the significant simple effect of positive parenting in the SS grouping.

**p<.01

5-HTTLPR x parenting interactions did not predict growth in child assertion or self-control. For these subdomains, a chief result 5-HTTLPR emerged, such that SS children demonstrated greater relative declines in these domains of social skills beyond ages 6 to nine years equally compared to SL/LL children (see Figure 3). This same principal effect of 5-HTTLPR was also found for the other social skills subdomains and total score. SL/LL children demonstrated significant growth in total social skills and responsibility skills, marginal growth in self-command, and no significant growth in cooperation or assertion. In contrast, SS children demonstrated significant declines in total social skills (B = −1.61, p < .05) and assertion (B = −.51, p = <.01), merely not cooperation (B = −.30, ns), responsibility (B = .08, ns) or cocky-command (B = −.21, ns).

Main effect models of v-HTTLPR on Social Skills Rating Organization (SSRS) scales: Assertion (5-HTTLPR: B = −.49, p < .01) and Self-Command (5-HTTLPR: B = −.43, p <.05).

**p<.01,+p>.10

Discussion

This study is the first to test interactions betwixt 5-HTTLPR and observed parenting behavior predicting prospective youth social skill development. While previous research has extensively examined 5-HTTLPR ten environment interactions for child psychopathology and hating behavior, information technology is unclear how this putative GxE influences prosocial beliefs. Findings revealed differential GxE furnishings by development timing and social skills domain, providing partial support for study hypotheses. Whereas the SL/LL group demonstrated associations between positive parenting and concurrent social skills at historic period 6, the SS group demonstrated relations between negative and positive parenting and prospective growth in specific aspects of social skills (cooperation and responsibility, respectively) from ages vi to 9 years.

First, at age 6, observed positive parenting behavior was positively associated with social skills in the SL/LL group (only not SS group), contrary to study hypotheses. This finding suggests a dominant GxE effect for concurrent social skills, in which the dominant L allele, rather than the S allele, confers susceptibility to the surroundings. Several contempo studies take found an 50-allele driven consequence (east.g., Little et al., in press), although findings are mixed (Weeland, Overbeek, Castro, & Matthys, 2015). Divergent findings have been attributed to differing GxE pathways by allele, in which either the S or L allele confers environmental susceptibility depending on the type of environment and developmental outcome assessed (see Weeland et al., 2015). For instance, the Due south allele predicted heightened emotional and physiological reactivity as well as emergent irritability, aggression, and related psychopathology in negative contexts (e.chiliad., Cicchetti, Rogosch, & Thibodeau, 2012). In contrast, 50 allele carriers demonstrated hyporeactivity to negative affect and punishment (Glenn, 2011) and attentional bias toward positive emotional stimuli (Fox, Ridgewell, & Ashwin, 2009), which may mediate the link between positive parenting and adaptive social performance for this group. Withal, given that the dominant GxE establish was specific to age 6 social skills, we cannot rule out the office of passive factor-environment correlation (see Knafo & Jaffee, 2013). That is, parents of SL/LL children (who themselves are more likely to be Fifty allele carriers) may demonstrate an attentional bias towards positive behavior and respond with greater levels of positive parenting. All the same, in the current study levels of positive and negative parenting did not differ past child genotype.

Given the dynamic changes in social development beyond childhood, and potential for bidirectional influences of parent and child behavior (Sameroff, 2009), a key aim of the nowadays study was to characterize 5-HTTLPR x parenting interactions in the context of social skills growth. Overall, SS children demonstrated stronger associations between positive and negative parenting and growth in social skills than those with the SL/LL genotypes, consistent with study hypotheses, although this blueprint was sensitive to the specific social skill domain assessed. For child cooperation, an unexpected direction of upshot emerged such that negative parenting positively predicted relative growth in these skills for the SS grouping (but non the SL/LL group). Yet for the domain of kid responsibility, positive parenting predicted more positive growth for those with the SS genotype only. Parsing apart these parenting-social skill associations aids our agreement of the specificity of GxE effects.

That negative parenting predicted relative growth in cooperation skills appears to diverge from prior evidence that the SS genotype confers adventure for increased reactivity to stressful environments (Gotlib, Joormann, Minor, & Hallmayer, 2008). Yet, this discrepancy may relate to the outcomes assessed and absolute levels of negative parenting present. While several studies found that severe environments (i.e., maltreatment and institutionalization) more negatively impact children with the SS genotype (due east.g., Cicchetti et al., 2012), the present report reflected normative levels of negative parenting in a community-based sample. Indeed, the mean levels of negative parenting observed (i.e., "minimal" to "some") include mild negative affect and intrusive or controlling beliefs. Previous literature is mixed regarding the impact of parents' negative emotional expression on kid social operation, with multiple studies observing a positive relationship between low to moderate levels of parent negative impact and child social evolution (e.g. Valiente et al., 2004). Consistent with the negativity bias hypothesis (Vaish, Grossmann, & Woodward, 2008), these mildly negative parenting behaviors, as opposed to detached or neglectful parenting, may attract a kid's attention and increase his or her ability to acquire from the emotional expression. This might be especially relevant for SS children who may display attentional preferences for negative emotions (Pergamin-Hight et al., 2012).

Farther, the observed positive clan of negative parenting among SS children besides appeared to be specific to cooperative social behavior (e.g., helps with chores, does tasks without existence asked). Similarly to child compliant beliefs, cooperative behavior may exist encouraged past the apprehension of parents' negative touch on (east.thousand., disappointment) and parents' use of control strategies, particularly at small-scale levels (Kalb & Loeber, 2003). Thus, mild levels of negative parenting may be protective against risk for relatively poor development in this domain for SS children. This pattern of results suggests that the absolute levels of negative parenting in the present study may not have allowed for the formal testing of differential susceptibility. Time to come studies may choose to include samples at higher take chances for negative parenting (e.grand. families with a history of kid maltreatment, depression SES). Further, given the unexpected direction of result, results regarding v-HTTLPR x negative parenting interaction should exist considered exploratory in nature, and interpreted with caution until supported with replication.

We also found that positive parenting was positively associated with growth in responsibility skills (due east.g., attends to adults, asks for permission) for SS children merely non SL/LL children. Positive parenting, including parent engagement, sensitivity to kid mood and developmental level, and scaffolding of learning opportunities, is associated with positive social functioning and broader positive developmental outcomes (Cassidy & Shaver, 2016). These parenting practices are thought to influence children'southward understanding of social relationships, particularly during the first five to 7 years of life (Belsky, Steinberg, & Draper, 1991). In the present study, positive parenting effects were specific to growth in child responsibility skills in the SS group, which may reflect the type of positive social beliefs modeled by parents. Viewed in light of social learning theory (Bandura, 2012), positive parenting may be a style of modeling social responsibility. For example, by noticing and responding sensitively to the child'due south mood and functioning, parents may be modeling guidelines for responsible social behavior such as considering others' feelings or perspectives before taking activity. That this association was nowadays for the SS grouping only coincides with meta-analytic and experimental evidence supporting the S allele as a marking of sensitivity to positive environments (east.grand. Van IJzendoorn et al., 2012).

Finally, we examined developmental trends in social skills by genotype. Across all domains, SS children demonstrated greater relative decline in social skills than those with SL/LL genotypes. Parenting behavior moderates these effects for cooperation and responsibility, but not for assertion and self-control. Trends suggest that the SS genotype may be a marker of risky social development, consistent with previous research linking this variant to maladaptive social behavior in human and non-man animals (east.g. Stoltenberg et al., 2013; Bailey et al., 2015). Initial social functioning did not differ between groups, highlighting the importance of assessing genetic furnishings in the context of development. Heritability of sure behavioral phenotypes increase with age due to processes such as active or evocative gene-environment correlation and increases in factor expression across evolution (Bergen, Gardner, & Kendler, 2007), which may explain developmental changes in 5-HTTLPR-social skills associations. Findings suggests that v-HTTLPR studies should continue to employ rigorous, repeated measures designs to accurately assess and translate GxE furnishings in the context of development.

Findings should be interpreted in light of study limitations. First, the present study featured observational parenting measures; multi-method cess including subjective ratings would likely heighten understanding of the specificity of gene-parenting interactions on social evolution. Further, the report lacked parent genetic information, which limited the ability to control for the potential furnishings of passive gene-environment correlation (Knafo & Jaffee, 2013). The sample size was likewise modest for this type of analysis and thus underpowered to detect effects of modest magnitude; this might be especially relevant when interactions were not observed, as genetic furnishings on human behavior tend to be small (Manuck & McCaffery, 2014). Information technology will be important for larger, independent studies to test the reproducibility of results. Finally, the present study should be considered within the context of challenges faced by the field of candidate GxE research more broadly, including the potential for type I error and replication failure (Duncan & Keller, 2011). Indeed, GxE research remains a controversial field with some criticizing the use of sample sizes below 1,000 due to presumed very small effect sizes (Dick et al., 2015). These considerations are particularly poignant for findings with unexpected directions of outcome, which should be interpreted every bit exploratory until supported with replication. In dissimilarity, the majority of large-scale GxE studies lack rigorous cess of the social surround and kid phenotype (i.e., observational and repeated measures assessment). Therefore, it is important to balance these large-calibration designs with more than modestly-sized nevertheless rigorously assessed samples, equally repeated and observational measures increase power and may provide convergent bear witness or elucidate developmental specificity in GxE.

The nowadays written report found that the 5-HTTLPR SS genotype conferred developmental sensitivity to parenting behavior, including effects to sure social domains. This show may help to maximize the benefit of psychosocial interventions by employing interventions that are targeted to the kid'due south social needs and genetically-informed manner of learning. If replicated, these findings suggest that parenting interventions targeting child cooperation skills may choose to teach healthy communication of parent negative emotions and limit setting, especially for families of SS children. Too, treatments promoting responsibleness in these children may cull to focus more on increasing positive parenting skills (east.m., sensitivity, engagement). Overall, results suggest that the influence of parenting on social evolution varies by child genotype and holds meaningful implications for delivering targeted interventions to foster person-environs fit.

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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6878128/

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